Renaissance Notes Essay Example for Free

spiritual rebirth Notes EssayThe 15th century cunningistic victimisations in Italy matured during the 16th century. The 15th century is thus designated the Early spiritual rebirth and the 16th century the highschool Renaissance. Although there is no single expressive style that defines the period, there is a distinct level of technical and artistic mastery that does. This is the age of da Vinci da Vinci, Raphael, Michelangelo, and Titian, artists whose works exhibit such authority, that later generations of artists relied on these works for instruction.These exemplary artistic creations further elevated the prestige of artists. Artists could claim divine inspiration, thereby raising ocular art to a status erstwhile only given to poetry. Painters, cutters, and house decorators were elevated to a new level and they claimed for their work a high position among the fine arts.Leonardo da Vinci (1452 1519) was born in the sm each town of Vinci, near Florence. He trained in the studio of Andrea del Verrocchio. He was brilliant man with many interests. His directions foreshadowed those that art and science would take in the future. A discussion of his many interests enhances our chthonicstanding of his artistic production. Those interests argon seen in his Romulus sketchbooks filled with drawings and notes from his studies of the human body and natural universe. He explored optics in-depth, allowing him to understand perspective, light, and color. His scientific drawings be artworks themselves.Leonardos ambition in enactment, as well as science, was to discover the laws underlying the processes and flux of reputation. Leonardo believed that ingenuousness in its absolute soul is inaccessible, and that humans can only know it through its changing images. He considered the eyes the some vital organs and sight the most essential function. In his notes, he repeatedly stated that all his scientific investigations made him a better keystoneer.Around 1481, Leonardo left Florence, advanceing his services to Ludovico Sforza, duke of Milan. In his offer he highlighted his competence as a military engineer, mentioning his artistic abilities only at the end. This provided Leonardo with increased financial security and highlights the periods instability.During his initiative trip to Milan Leonardo painted Virgin on the Rocks as a cardinal panel of an altarpiece for the chapel of the confraternity of the Immaculate Conception in San Francesco Grande. The pictorial matter builds on Masaccios understanding and usage of Chiaroscuro. Modeling with light and shadow and expressing e interrogativeal states were, for Leonardo, the heart of painting.A good painting has two chief objects to paint man and the intention of his soul. The former is easy, the latter hard, for it must be expressed by gestures and the movement of the limbs A painting will only be grand for the beholder by making that which is not so come out of the closet raised and detached from the wall.Leonardo gifted the figures in Virgin of the Rocks in a pyramidal assort and more notably, as sharing the same environment. This groundbreaking achievement the unified representation of objects in an atmospheric setting was a manifestation of scientific crotchet nearly the invisible substance surrounding things.The Madonna, Christ Child, infant John the Baptist, and angel emerge through nuances of light and shade from the half light of the hollow visionary adorn. Light veils and reveals the forms, immersing them in a layer of atmosphere that exists amid them and the viewer. Atmospheric perspective is in full view. The figures actions unite them prayer, pointing, and blessing. The angel points to the infant John. His outer glance involves spectators out of view, perhaps the viewers of the painting. John prays to the Christ Child and is blessed in return. The Virgin her egotism assoils the series of interlocking gestures, her left hand resting pr otectively on Johns shoulder. The mood of tenderness, enhanced by caressing light, suffuses the total composition. Leonardo succeeded in expressing the intention of his soul.For the refectory of the church of Santa Maria delle Grazie in Milan, Leonardo painted Last Supper. Despite its ruined state (in pause from Leonardos unfortunate experiments with his materials) and although it has often been restored ineptly, the painting is Leonardos most officially and emotionally impressive work. Christ and his twelve disciples are seated at a long table set parallel to the picture patterne in a simple, spacious room. Leonardo amplified the drama by placing it in an austere room. Christ with outstretched hands, has just said, one of you is about to betray me Matt 2621. A wave of intense excitement passes through the group as individually disciple asks himself or his neighbor, Is it I?In the center, Christ appears isolated from the disciples and in perfect repose, while emotion swirls vi rtually him. The central window in the fundament frames Christ and has a curving pediment above it. The arc serves as a diff utilise halo. Christs head is the location of the single vanishing point on which the orthogonals converge, further emphasizing Christ. Leonardo presented the agitated disciples in quartette groups of three, linked among and within themselves by the figures gestures and postures.The artist sacrificed traditional iconography to pictorial and dramatic consistency by placing Judas on the same side of the table as Jesus and the other(a) disciples. His face in shadow, Judas clutches a money bag in his right hand and reaches his left forward to fulfill the Masters solving But yeah behold, the hand of him that betrayeth me is on the table Luke 2221. The two disciples on the end contain the action by their quiet composure.Leonardos, Mona Lisa is the worlds most famous portrait. The sitters identity is not certain, that Vasari asserted that she is Lisa di Antonio Maria Gherardini, the wife of a pixilated Florentine hence, Mona (an Italian contraction of ma donna, my lady) Lisa. It is notable because it is a convincing representation of an individual, alternatively than serving as an icon of status. The ambiguity of the famous smile is really the consequence of Leonardos fascination and skill with chiaroscuro and atmospheric perspective.Her they serve to disguise rather than reveal a human psyche. The artist subtly correct the light and blurred precise planes Leonardos famous smokey sfumato (misty haziness) rendering the facial expression hard to determine. The lingering appeal of Mona Lisa derives in large part from Leonardos decision to set his subject against the backdrop of a mysterious uninhabited landscape. Originally Leonardo represented Mona Lisa in a loggia with columns. The painting was cropped later on (not by Leonardo) and the columns were eliminated. The remains of the column bases may still be seen to the left and right o f Monas shoulders.Leonardo completed very a couple of(prenominal) paintings his perfectionism, relentless experimentation, and far ranging curiosity diffused his efforts. The drawings in his notebooks preserve an extensive record of his ideas. His interests focused increasingly on science in his later years, and he embraced knowledge of all facets of the natural world. One example is The Fetus and Lining of the Uterus, although not up to 20th century standards for accuracy, it was an astounding achievement in its day. though not the commencement scientist, Leonardo certainly originated a method of scientific illustration, especially cutaway and exploded views. Scholars fork over long recognized the importance of these drawings for the development of anatomy as a science, especially in an age predating photographic methods such a X rays.Leonardo was well cognize as an architect and sculptor in his lifetime, but no existing building or works can be attributed to him. From his dra wings he was interested in the central style plan of buildings. Leonardo left many drawings of monumental equestrian statues of which one was made into a full scale model for a monument to Francesco Sforza (Ludovicos). The French used it for a target and shot it to pieces when they occupied Milan in 1499. Due to the French, Leonardo left Milan and served for a while as a military engineer for Caesar Borgia, who, with the certify of his father, Pope Alexander VI, who tried to conquer the cities of the Romagna region in North Central Italy and create a Borgia duchy. At a later date, Leonardo returned to Milan in the service of the French. At the invitation of King Francis I, he therefore went to France, where he died at the Chateau of Cloux in 1519.Julius II The Warrior PopePope Julius II (Giuliano della Rovere (1503 1513), was an individual whose interests and activities effected the quarrel of the High Renaissance. Julius II was a very ambitious man who indulged his enthusiasm for battle in a supposed quest to expand the church and the kingdom of Heaven by worldly means. This earned him a designation as the warrior pope. He selected his name Julius after Julius Caesar, and he ran the papacy using the papist Empire as his model.Julius IIs papacy was notable for his contributions to the arts. He was an avid art sponsor and understood well the propagandistic value of visual imagery. After his election as pope, he immediately commissioned artworks that would present an authoritative image of his rule and reinforce the primacy of the Catholic Church. He commissioned a new design for Saint Peters basilica, the construction of his tomb, the painting of the Sistine Chapel ceiling, and the decoration of the apostolic isolatedments. These large scale checks clearly required huge finances. Because of this need, Julius sanctioned the huge increase in the selling of indulgences as a way to raise the revenue needed to fund the art, architecture, and the lavish p apal lifestyle. This science prompted disgruntlement among the faithful. Despite his butional artistic legacy, Julius IIs patronage contributed to the rise of the Reformation.Saint PetersOld Saint Peters had fall into considerable disrepair and did not fit Julius IIs taste for the large, colossal, and glorious. He wanted control over all Italy and shoot the Rome of the Popes as glorious as or greater than that of the Caesars. This important commission was awarded to Donato DAngelo Bramante (1444 1514). Bramante was trained as a painter. He went to Milan in 1481 and stayed till the French arrived in 1499. In Milan he abandoned painting and went on to become the most renowned architect of his generation. Influenced by Brunelleschi, Alberti, and perhaps Leonardo, who favored antiquity, Bramante developed the High Renaissance form of the central plan church.Bramante passe-partoutly conceived the new Saint Peters to consist of a cross with arms of equal length, each terminated by an apse. Julius II intended the new building to serve as a martyrium to mark Saint Peters grave and too hoped to have his own tomb in it. A large dome would have covered the crossing, and smaller domes over the subsidiary chapels would have covered the throw axes of the roughly squared plan. The ambitious plan called for a boldly sculptural treatment of the walls and piers under the dome. His design for the interior space was complex in the extreme, with the complex symmetries of a crystal. It is possible to detect in the plan nine interlocking crosses, five of them supporting domes. The scale was so titanic that, according to sources, Bramante boasted he would mooring the dome of the Pantheon over the Basilica Nova.During Bramantes lifetime, the actual construction on the new Saint Peters basilica did not advance beyond the building of the crossing piers and the lower choir walls. After his death, the work passed on to other architects and finally to Michelangelo, whom Pope Paul I II appointed in 1546 to complete the building. Not until the 17th century did the Church oversee the completion.An earlier building completed by Bramante is considered the perfect prototype of clear domed architecture for the Renaissance and after. The building is called Tempietto Little Temple because to contemporaries it had the look of a roman letters pagan temple. The lower story was directly inspired by the round temples of Roman Italy that Bramante would have know in Rome.King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella of Spain commissioned the Tempietto to mark the conjectural location of Saint Peters crucifixion. Available information suggests the project was commissioned in 1502, but there is dispute over the date.Bramante relied on the composition of volumes and masses and on a sculptural discussion of solids and voids to set apart this building, all but devoid of ornament, from the social organizations built in the preceding century. Standing inside the cloister along side the chu rch of San Pietro in Montorio, Rome, and the Tempietto resembles a sculptured reliquary and would have looked even more comparable one inside the circular colonnaded courtyard Bramante planned for it but never executed.At first glance, the structure seems severely rational with its circular stylobate and Tuscan style colonnade. Wonderful harmony is achieved in the relationship of the parts (dome, drum, and base) to one another and to the whole. Conceived as a improbable domed cylinder projecting from a wider lower cylinder of the colonnade, this building incorporates all the qualities of a sculpted monument. There is a wonderful rhythmic laugher of light and shadow on the form. Although the Tempietto may superficially resemble a Greek tholos, the combination of parts and details was new and original.If one of the main differences between Early and High Renaissance styles of architecture was the formers emphasis on detailing flat wall surfaces versus the latters sculptural handli ng of architectural masses, then Tempietto certainly broke new ground and stood at the beginning of the High Renaissance. The architect Andrea Palladio credited Bramante as the first to bring back to light the good and beautiful architecture from antiquity to that time had been hidden. Round in plan, it is elevated on a base that isolates it from its surroundings.MichelangeloThe artist whom Pope Julius II deemed best able to convey his message was Michelangelo Buonarroti (1475 1564), who received some(a) of the most coveted commissions. Though a man of many talents, architect, sculptor, painter, poet, and engineer, he thought of himself first as a sculptor. He regarded sculptor as a superior calling to painter because the sculptor shares in something like the divine power to make man. Drawing a conceptual parallel to Platos ideas, Michelangelo believed that the image produced by the artists hand must come from the idea in the artists mind. The idea, then, is the reality that the ar tists genius has brought forth. But artists are not the creators of the ideas they conceive. Rather they find their ideas in the natural world, reflecting the absolute idea, which, for the artist, is beauty.One of Michelangelos best known observations about sculpture is that the artist must proceed by finding the idea the image locked in the stone, as it were. thus, by removing the excess stone, the artist extricates the ideas, like Pygmalion bringing forth the living form. Michelangelo felt that the artist works through many years at this unceasing process of revelation and arrives late at novel and lofty things.Michelangelo sharply broke from his predecessors in a very important respect. He mistrusted the application of mathematical methods as guarantees of beauty in proportion. broadsheet and proportion, he believed, should be kept in the eyes. Vasari quotes Michelangelo as declaring that it was necessary to have the compasses in the eyes and not in the hand, because the hands work and the eye judges. Thus Michelangelo went against Vitruvius, Alberti, Leonardo, and others by asserting that the artists inspired judgment could identify other pleasing proportions. He believed that the artist must not be bound, except by the demands made by realizing the idea.This insistence on the artists own authority was typical of Michelangelo and anticipated the modern concept of the right of self expression of talent limited only by the artists own judgment. The artistic license to aspire far beyond the rules was, in part, a manifestation of the pursuit of fame and success that humanism fostered. In this context, Michelangelo designed architecture and created paintings that departed from High Renaissance regularity. He put in its stead a style of vast, expressive strength conveyed through complex, eccentric, and often titanic forms that loom before the viewer in tragic grandeur. Michelangelos self imposed isolation, germinal furies, proud independence, and daring innov ations led Italians to speak of the dominating quality of the man and his work in one word -terribilita, the sublime shadowed by the awful and the fearful.DavidIn 1501, the Florence Cathedral building committee asked Michelangelo to work a great block of marble left over from an earlier aborted commission. From this stone, Michelangelo crafted David, which assured his reputation then and now as an extraordinary talent. The form and its references to classical antiquity appealed to Julius II who associated himself with the humanists and Roman emperors. This sculpture and the acclaim that accompanied its completion lead to Michelangelos papal commissions.Like other David sculptures, Michelangelos had a political dimension. With the political instability of the time, Florentines viewed David as the symbolic defiant hero of the Florentine republic, especially given the statues placement near the west door of the Palazzo della Signoria. Forty years after Davids completion, Vasari extoll ed the political value of David claiming that without a doubt the figure has put in the shade every other statue, ancient or modern, Greek or Roman this was intended as a symbol of liberty for the palace, signifying that just as David protected his people and governed them justly, so whoever ruled Florence should vigorously defend the city and govern it with justice. Michelangelo depicted David, not in victory, but turning his head seriously watching the approaching foe. His whole body and face is tense with gathering power. This energy in reserve is characteristic of Michelangelos later figures.The Roman sculptors skill in precise rendering of heroic physique impressed Michelangelo. In David, without strictly imitating the antique style, Michelangelo captured the Lysippan athletes and the emotionalism of Hellenistic statuary. This David differs from Donatellos and Verrocchios as Hellenistic statues depart from classical ones. Michelangelo abandoned the self contained compositions of the 15th century David statues by giving Davids head the abrupt turn toward Goliath. Michelangelos David is compositionally and emotionally connected to an unseen presence beyond the statue a quality in Hellenistic sculpture. As early as David, Michelangelo invested his efforts in presenting towering indite up emotion rather than calm ideal beauty.Julius IIs TombThe first project Julius II commissioned from Michelangelo in 1505 was the pontiffs own tomb. The original design called for a freestanding two story structure with some 28 statues. This colossal monument would have given Michelangelo the latitude to sculpt numerous human statues while providing the pope with a grandiose memorial which Julius intended to be in St. Peters. Shortly after the project began, it was interrupted, possibly because capital had to be diverted to Bramantes building of St. Peters. After Julius IIs death in 1513, Michelangelo was forced to reduce the scale of the project step by step until, it bec ame a simple wall tomb with one third of the originally planned figures. The tomb was completed in 1545 and was placed in San Pietro in Vincoli, Rome, where Julius at one time had been a cardinal.It is with surety that the ambitious Julius II would have been bitterly disappointed. The spirit of the tomb may be summed up in the figure of Moses, which Michelangelo had completed in 1513, during a sporadic resumption of work. It was meant to be seen from below and to be balanced with seven other massive forms related to it in spirit. The position of Moses now in his rather paltry setting does not have its original impact. Michelangelo depicted the Old Testament prophet seated, the Tablets of the Law under one arm and his hands gathering his voluminous beard. The horns were a recognizable convention to identify Moses. Michelangelo used the turned head, which concentrates the expression of awful wrath that stirs in Moses powerful frame and eyes. The muscles bulge, the veins swell, and the great legs seem to begin slowly to move with pent up energy.Originally 20 sculptures of slaves in various attitudes of revolt and exhaustion, appear on the tomb. Bound Slave is one of those sculptures. Scholars question whether this sculpture and three other slave sculptures should have been part of Juliuss tomb. Many scholars also carry off their identification as slaves or captives. What ever their intended purpose they are definitive. The figures do not represent an abstract concept, as in medieval allegory, but embody powerful emotional states associated with oppression. Michelangelo based his whole art on his conviction that whatever can be said greatly through sculpture and painting must be said through the human figure.The Sistine ChapelWith the suspension of the tomb project, Julius gave the bitter and reluctant Michelangelo the commission to paint the Sistine Chapel in 1508. Michelangelo gave in hoping that the tomb commission would be revived. He faced enormous difficult ies in painting the Sistine ceiling. He was inexperienced in fresco painting. The ceiling was some 5,800 square feet of surface to be covered and it was 70 feet above the ground. The vaults height and curve created complicated perspective problems. Yet, in less than four years, Michelangelo produced an unprecedented work a monumental fresco incorporating the patrons agenda, Church doctrine, and the artists interests. The theme of the creation, the fall, and the redemption of humanity weave unneurotic more than 300 figures.A long sequence of narrative panels describing the Creation as recorded in Genesis, runs along the crown of the vault. The Hebrew prophets and pagan sibyls who foretold the access of Christ appear seated in large thrones on both sides of the central row of scenes from Genesis where the vault curves down. In the four corner pendentives are placed four Old Testament scenes with David, Judith, Haman, and Moses and the Brazen Serpent. Scores of lesser figures also a ppear.The ancestors of Christ fill the triangular compartments above the windows, nude youths punctuate the corners of the central panels and small pairs of putti (cherub little boys) support the painted cornice surrounding the entire central corridor. The overall concept a sweeping chronology of Christianity was keeping with Renaissance ideas about Christian history. Such ideas include interest in the conflict between good and evil and between the energy of youth and the wisdom of age. The conception of the entire ceiling was astounding in itself, and the articulation of it in its thousand details was a superhuman achievement.One of the ceilings central panels, the Creation of ex, is also one of the most famous. Michelangelo created a bold, entirely humanistic interpretation of the momentous event. God and Adam confront each other in a primordial unformed landscape of which Adam is still a material part. The Lord transcends the earth, wrapped in a billowing cloud of drapery and borne up by his powers. Life leaps to Adam like a spark from the extended hand of God. The communication between Gods and man was common in myth and the connection here is clear. It emphasizes how High Renaissance thought joined classical and Christian traditions. Beneath the Lords sheltering arm is a female figure comprehensive but uncreated. Scholars traditionally have believed this to be Eve, but recent scholarship suggests that it may be the Virgin Mary with the Christ Child at her knee. If this is true, Michelangelo incorporated into the fresco the basic tenets of the Christian faith. RaphaelWhile Michelangelo was working on the Sistine Ceiling, Pope Julius II commissioned Raphael (1483 1520) to decorate the papal apartments in 1508. Raphael painted the Stanza della Segnatura (Room of the Signature the papal library) and the Stanza dEliodoro (Room of Heliodorus). His pupils completed the other rooms, following his sketches. On the Four walls in the Stanza della Segnatura, und er the headings of Theology (Disputa), Law (Justice), Poetry (Parnassus), and Philosophy (School of Athens), Raphael presented images that symbolize and sum up Western learning as Renaissance society understood it. The frescos refer to the four branches of human knowledge and wisdom while pointing out the virtues and learning appropriate to a pope.Given Julius IIs desire for recognition as both a spiritual and temporal leader, it is appropriate that the Theology and Philosophy frescos face each other. The two images present a balanced picture of the pope as a cultured, knowledgeable, individual, on the one hand, and as a wise, divinely ordained religious authority on the other. The Philosophy mural (the so called School of Athens) is the setting not of a school but a congregation of the great philosophers and scientists of the ancient world. Raphael depicted these luminaries rediscovered by Renaissance thinkers conversing and explaining their various theories and ideas. In a vast hall covered by massive barrel vaults that recall Roman architecture (and approximate the appearing of the new Saint Peters in 1509 when the painting was executed), colossal statues of Apollo and Athena, patron gods of the arts and of wisdom, oversee the interactions.Plato and Aristotle serve as the central figures around whom Raphael carefully arranged others. Plato holds his book Timaeus and points to heaven, the source of his inspiration, while Aristotle carries his book Nichomachean Ethics and gestures toward the earth, from which his observations of reality sprang. On Platos side are the ancient philosophers, men concerned with the final mysteries that transcend this world. On Aristotles side are the philosophers and scientists concerned with the nature of human affairs. At the lower left, Pythagoras writes as a servant holds up the likeable scale. In the foreground, Heraclitus (probably a portrait of Michelangelo) broods alone. Diogenes sprawls on the steps. At the right , students are around Euclid, who demonstrates a theorem.This group is especially interesting Euclid may be the portrait of the aging Bramante. At the extreme right, just to the right of the astronomers Zoroaster and Ptolemy, both holding globes, Raphael included his own portrait. The figures self assurance and natural dignity convey the very nature of calm reason that balance and measure the great Renaissance minds so admired as the heart of philosophy. In this work Raphael placed himself among the mathematicians and scientists. His convincing depiction of a vast perspective space on a two dimensional surface was the consequence of the union of mathematics, with pictorial space, here mastered completely. every the characters in the School of Athens, communicate moods that reflect their beliefs, and the artists placement of each figure tied these moods together. From the center, Raphael arranged groups of figures in an elliptical movement around Plato and Aristotle. It seems to swi ng forward, looping around the two foreground groups on both sides and then back again to the center. Moving through the wide opening in the foreground around the floors perspective pattern, the viewers eye penetrates the assembly of philosophers and continues, by way of the reclining Diogenes, up to the here reconciled leading of the two great opposing camps of Renaissance philosophy. The perspectives vanishing point falls on Platos left hand, drawing the viewers vigilance to Timaeus. In the works in the Stanza della Segnatura, Raphael reconciled and harmonized not only the Platonists and Aristotelians but also paganism and Christianity, surely a major factor in his appeal to Julius II.GalateaPope Leo X (Giovanni de Medici, 1513 1521), the son of Lorenzo de Medici, succeeded Julius II as Raphaels patron. Leo was a worldly, pleasure loving prince who spent huge amounts on the arts. Raphael moved in the highest circles of the papal court, the star of a brilliant society. He was yo ung, handsome, wealthy, and adulated, not only by his followers, but also by Rome and all Italy. Genial, even tempered, generous, and high minded. Raphaels personality contrasted with the mysterious and aloof Leonardo, or the tormented and obstinate Michelangelo. The Pope was not Raphaels only patron. His friend Agostino Chigi, an immensely wealthy banker who managed the papal states financial affairs, commissioned Raphael to decorate his palace, the Villa Farnesina, on the Tiber with scenes from classical mythology. Outstanding among the frescos was Galatea, which Raphael based on Metamorphoses, by the ancient Roman poet Ovid.In Raphaels fresco, Galatea flees from her uncouth lover, the Cyclops Polyphemus, on a shell drawn by leaping dolphins. Sea creatures and playful cupids surround her. The painting erupts in excited pagan joy and exuberance, an exultant song in praise of human beauty and zestful love. Raphael enhanced the liveliness of the composition by placing the sturdy fig ures around Galatea in bounding and dashing movements that always return to her energetic center. The cupids, skillfully foreshortened, repeat the circling motion. Raphael conceived his figures sculpturally. Galateas body is strong and vigorous in motion suggesting the spiraling motion of Hellenistic statuary, and contrasting with Botticellis, almost dematerialized Venus. Pagan myth presented in monumental form, in vivacious movement, and a spirit of passionate delight resurrects the naturalistic art and poetry of the classical world.Pope Paul IIIPope Paul III maintained the lavish lifestyle of previous popes and was a great patron of the arts. He commissioned a palace for himself while he was still Cardinal Farnese. The Palazzo Farnese in Rome was designed by Antonio Da Sangallo the Younger (1483 1546) who established himself as the favorite architect of Pope Paul II and received many commissions that might have otherwise gone to Michelangelo. Antonio was from a family of archite cts and was an assistant and draftsperson for Bramante. Antonio built fortifications for almost the entire papal state and received more commissions for military than for civilian architecture.The Palazzo Farnese set the standard for the High Renaissance palazzo and fully expresses the classical order, regularity, simplicity, and dignity of the High Renaissance. It was finished by Michelangelo after Antonios death in 1546.The Last JudgmentMany of Pope Paul IIIs commissions were part of an orchestrated campaign to restore the prominence of the Catholic Church in wake of the Protestant Reformation. The Reformation was the result of widespread dissatisfaction with the leadership and practices of the Catholic Church. Led by Clerics such as Martin Luther (1483 1546) and John Calvin (1509 1564) the Reformation directly challenged papal authority. The disgruntled Catholics voiced concerns about the sale of indulgences, nepotism, and high Church officials move personal wealth. This refo rm movement resulted in the establishment of Protestantism, with sub groups such as Lutheranism and Calvinism. Central to Protestantism is a belief in personal faith rather than adherence to decreed Church practices and doctrines. This personal relationship between an individual and God, in essence eliminated the need for Church intercession central to Catholicism.

Bluewater Case Study Essay Example for Free

Bluewater Case Study Essay* Was built on an old fossa brownfield land. * Employs around 7000 people.* Good disabled access and a range of things to do for all(a) people.* Bluewater makes sure it remains sustainable it has high operational standards, water manipulation is measured and controlled, energy is reduced as much as possible, it has a lake and wildlife commonwealth to introduce biodiversity, community partnerships, as little chemical use as possible and green transport e.g. buses.Positives of Bluewater* Was built on an old quarry brownfield land.* Employs around 7000 people.* Good disabled access and a range of things to do for all people.* Bluewater makes sure it remains sustainable it has high operational standards, water usage is measured and controlled, energy is reduced as much as possible, it has a lake and wildlife ara to introduce biodiversity, community partnerships, as little chemical use as possible and green transport e.g. buses.What does Bluewater dr ive home to offer?* oer 300 shops,* everyplace 50 restaurants to eat and drink in,* A cinema,* Boating and cycling facilities,* A mini sports stadium,* Places to cook, read, play on a computer,* Advice centres,* Homework help.What does Bluewater have to offer?* Over 300 shops,* Over 50 restaurants to eat and drink in,* A cinema,* Boating and cycling facilities,* A mini sports stadium,* Places to cook, read, play on a computer,* Advice centres,* Homework help.A bit about Bluewater* Bluewater is an out-of town regional shopping centre (definition a shopping centre containing over 50,000 squ atomic number 18 metres of gross retail domain of a function offering a wide range of comparison goods and services) * Bluewater is located in Greenhithe, Kent and is 17.8 miles eastern United States south east of London. A fifth of the UKs population are within an minute of arcs journey of Bluewater. * Bluewater has capacity for 13,000 cars, is close to the M25, has over 60 busloads go far every hour and has train and coach think making transport links easy. * It is the largest out of town shopping centre in Europe- cost 350m to progress A bit about Bluewater* Bluewater is an out-of town regional shopping centre (definition a shopping centre containing over 50,000 square metres of gross retail area offering a wide range of comparison goods and services) * Bluewater is located in Greenhithe, Kent and is 17.8 miles east south east of London. A fifth of the UKs population are within an hours journey of Bluewater. * Bluewater has capacity for 13,000 cars, is close to the M25, has over 60 busloads arrive every hour and has train and coach links making transport links easy. * It is the largest out of town shopping centre in Europe- cost 350m to build Negatives of Bluewater* Because of the amount of people traveling long distances to the site, congestion can be a problem, as well as noise and air pollution. * Although there are many bus links, they are not necessarily al l over the country and access may be difficult for those who do not have cars. * Because many people from the area will chose to go to Bluewater rather than local CBDs, these areas begin to lose business and a lot of money. Negatives of Bluewater* Because of the amount of people travelling long distances to the site, congestion can be a problem, as well as noise and air pollution. * Although there are many bus links, they are not necessarily all over the country and access may be difficult for those who do not have cars. * Because many people from the area will chose to go to Bluewater rather than local CBDs, these areas begin to lose business and a lot of money.

Safety Of Road Workers On Maintenance Of Highways Construction Essay

Safety Of way Workers On Maintenance Of Highways Construction EssayHighways precaution and street role players ensure that roads and pavements are safe and well maintained in towns, cities and rural areas throughout the country of operation. They might also build new roads and look afterwards the repair, building and resurfacing of the countrys motorway netwhole kit and boodle. Highway alimentation safety involves safety of players working on highway or road network services including road markings, chuckhole patching, road signs, road and footpath resurfacing, gully or drain cleaning, flooding, safety barriers, school crossing patrols, winter maintenance (snow removal), vegetation control, emergency services installing cats eyes, digging access trenches for cable and pipe laying, applying specialist surface treatments (such as high friction surfacing) profession lights, fencing and street lamps and m all more. All these maintenance activities shoot proper road safety a wareness and control when they are executed, so working safely is aimed at staff from any road sector with no supervisory or managerial responsibility to be made aware of the risks involved. It is of utmost importance to provide the essentials of health and safety for everyone at work to hurt an understanding of why they must work safely and this privy be achieved by education road workers through the use of seminars and kit and boodlehops.In Britain, roads are some of the busiest and dangerous in the area, but in todays traffic conditions, it shows that live in carriageway of any highway is a very-very dangerous bureau to work and injuries to road workers bear been increasing against the national trend. Road workers or operators will often be responsible for setting up warning signs, cones and evanescent traffic lights and redirecting pedestrians. They may also manage traffic flow while colleagues are working, communicating with a nonher operator via radio or hand signals pull ahead down the road are commonly used devices.As a road supervisor before conducting roadwork hypothecates, review the necessitate tasks, location, and time of day to correct the necessary equipment, personnel, and materials required. Plan how you will control traffic along the road and within the construction zone. Have enough trained flaggers to complete your work. Gather the signs, cones, flags, drums, and/or message boards that you will need for the job. Inspect your signage to make sure it is in good repair and highly visible. Clean or discard dirty equipment with check visibility. Get cookery on traffic control and safe work practices. Set up and maintain your roadside work zone properly. Get training on the equipment that you will use and drive, from the smallest tool to the largest moving vehicle. The operation of tools and equipment must be according to the manufacturers recommendations. Know the hazards of the chemicals and materials that you use and get trainin g on the ain protective equipment that you are required to turn in, including its uses and limitations. Wear high visibility garments on your legs and chest. Wear your assigned persona protective equipments, including a hardhat, safety shoes, and work gloves. regard earplugs or muffs, safety glasses, and fall protection depending on the job task. In the work zone, workers must watch for fast-moving motorists and large construction equipment. Set up set zones for your working vehicles such that they have safe entrances and exits from the highway that is maintained and group your vehicles on the same side of the road for visibility. As a supervisor you can buoy set-up the job site and tasks to minimize the need to cross the active road time and again and alsoset up traffic lanes within the jobsite for forgive access and visibility.When working on road, work facing traffic and stay alert, or station a lookout to watch oncoming traffic.The workers should have an outflow route or a architectural plan of action in place for any emergencies. Watch for backing vehicles be dress the number one wood often has a limited view. habituate good communication and make sure all vehicles have backup alarms. If you are flagging, acting as a lookout or traffic theater director you must remain alert,do not drink, smoke, or have a conversation while performing these duties. Road work is a physical job requiring strength and endurance, worker muststay fit so that their bodies can do the work.Road work occurs in all types of stick out and throughout the year.They should wear appropriate clothing for the climate. Light coloured layers and sunscreen protect them during the hot months while layers of moisture-wicking clothing protect you in the cold. The road workers must get potbelly of rest, eat right, and drink no-alcoholic drinks enough to stay healthy and alert on the job.From the Road Workers Perspective, there are few jobs more important than highway maintenance. It may go largely unappreciated by the end customer the motorist, but road workers are looking after some of the busiest roads in the world in the face of continued growth in Britains vehicle fleet, and the inevitable consequences of that growth for wear-and-tear on the network. And by helping to tackle congestion, road workers are presently supporting the British economy. And they do this despite working in some of the most difficult conditions that anyone has to tolerate. The risk of death or injury at work, go about daily by the workers who maintain Englands motorways and trunk roads, is suck uped by the results of a recent industry survey. Almost one in five workers suffers some injury caused by passing vehicles in the course of their careers while working on our road network. More than three-quarters suffer verbal abuse from drivers, and many have reported having objects throw at them by motorists. Road Workers even change the light bulbs in the central reservation. Surveys h ave been previously contacted and road workers were asked if they had experienced near miss, verbal abuse, handsome personal injury, major personal injury caused by road users vehicle and the responses were13% of road workers surveyed had sustained slight injuries3% had sustained major injuries77% had suffered verbal abuse from passing drivers54% had a near miss with a vehicle40% had experienced missiles deliberately thrown at themFrom these studies road workers felt most at risk during the morning and evening peak travel periods and in the early hours of the morning.There are believes that there is a springy need to educate drivers to start taking the problem of bucket alonging and the outcomes of speeding more seriously. The habitual speeders know that new(prenominal) people dont necessarily disapprove of their actions in the same way as they disapprove of drink- private road syndrome. It took a long time to change attitudes to drink-driving, but by communicating the message at every opportunity, with expert advertising and marketing, the G overnment can and has eventually succeeded in most countries, likewise today, drink-driving is socially unacceptable in the community. Therefore a similar change is required with speeding and peoples attitude to road full treatment.In UK, Highway Traffic Management Agency was launched in 2005 and since it was launched issues that dominated are the road maintenance safeties. Its goal is to have zero road injuries and zero fatalities by getting a reasonable balance between the needs of the road user and the safety of road workers exploitation a risk based approach as a short term. The long-term aim was to plan future betterments that make the working environment safer, including bearing for maintenance/operation, which has the added benefits of whole-life cost savings, less interventions and less congestion reduce road workers photo to live traffic and lessen the risks to road workers when on the network highlight the importance of road workers and their safety to the public by raising awareness and the industry consistently maintaining the highest standards. Finally it was to improve road user awareness and responses by amend driver education. At a general level, the government has taken the Road Safety Bill through Parliament, including new drink-driving legislation, driver training schemes, and a revised penalty system and is looking at improvements to the speed camera network and working with the police to fight back against anti-social use of roads.The Highways Agency Road Worker Safety Action Plan was unveiled at the conference held in 2006, with some of potential solutions listed in the including a review of procedures to reduce the exposure of road workers to live traffic and cut the risks of working on the highway. A review of maintenance priorities so workers dont have to be on the network so often more targeted speed limits at road whole works which can be altered to match safet y requirements. Improving of the accuracy and content of variant message signs to give road users more warning of works and the presence of road workers also improving the training of workers on high-speed roads, the promotion of split driver awareness and meliorate driver education, also finally the development of an incident and near-miss reporting centre.The Importance of Traffic ManagementWhen considering the traffic focus plan for any major scheme the safety and security of both the travelling public and the workforce is the primary aim. By the very nature of road works operations, the element of risk is introduced when managing traffic on high speed roads. The first essential element is to reduce the risk by reducing the speed. This can be achieved to a certain extent through the use of traffic management measures but experience has proven that the only reliable way of achieving consistently cut back speeds is through the use of safety cameras. The introduction of a brie f speed limit and safety cameras is done in conjunction with the respective Safety tv camera Partnership, who follow a risk assessment process which considers the level of exposure to risk of the public and the workforce. This is the reason that a variety of different traffic management measures can often be found at road works sites. However, the biggest single risk to road workers occurs not in major schemes but during subprogram maintenance operations and emergency lane closures. During these operations it is often only a line of cones that separates the workforce from high speed traffic. During these operations there is a clear need for motorists to act responsibly and respect the rights of road workers.Planning Road worksTraditionally, if there is one thing that causes motorists more frustration than any other, it is the overnight appearance of a forest of cones with little or no warning or information as to the reason. Hopefully, this aspect is largely becoming a thing of the past as a significant amount of intend is now undertaken prior to any major road works scheme. such projects are now often planned several years ahead taking cognisance of issues such as the optimum time and the likelihood of reliable weather where this is a requirement. The substantial rise in traffic volumes over the past decade has significantly impacted on road works planning, through not just the increased maintenance requirements brought about by the additional volume, but through the challenges to keep congestion at a minimum as any reduction in available road space can have significant consequences for journey times. While safety and security are the primary drivers when planning road works, contractors also incorporate extensive consultation with affected local communities and a targeted media campaign designed to advise drivers who use the affected route of the proposed works and levels of disruption. This forward planning and awareness through the media allows for driv ers to plan their journey accordingly.Engineering technology on road workers risk.This can be achieved both through measures at the construction stage and through the use of new and improved technology for maintenance operations. New construction processes and standards mean a a great deal longer design life can be achieved at the outset, significantly reducing the amount of routine maintenance operations required. In addition, where a maintenance requirement is identified during construction, the facility to achieve this without significantly impacting on traffic flow is considered carefully and where appropriate, additional engineering measures are introduced. In respect to maintenance operations on existing structures and highways the Highway Traffic Management Agency has been actively involved in developing technology in association with the Highways Agency, and over the past few years a number of innovative solutions which have had a positive impact on safety have been introdu ced. New techniques to improve safety and reduce congestion at road works on high-speed roads, for example, are now undergoing trials. Automated cone laying machines, fixed to the vertebral column of a traffic management vehicles, can place and collect standard road cones without the need for road workers to stand in a live carriageway contiguous to fast moving traffic. The machines accurately positions cones on the road surface at 15mph laying up to 40 cones per minute and reducing the time taken to set and remove temporary traffic management. Road users will benefit from the shorter period of time taken to change from normal carriageway to a coned-off area. Using the new machines, traffic cones will be laid and taken up more quickly, removing manual handling and enabling more routine maintenance work to be undertaken during all(prenominal) closure so reducing the frequency of road works and congestion. A new barrier transfer machine, which can lift 12 tons of cover safety ba rriers for motorway road works into place at a speed of 7 mph, is also now in operation, offering a higher(prenominal) level of barrier protection to motorway road workers. The mechanical broom which are now mostly used have improved the road workers safety and compared to manual sweeping.In June 2006, a new revised Chapter 8 of the Traffic Signs manual was launched that gives guidance on vanquish practice for temporary signing and management of traffic on the highway. Also it was designed to make traffic management for road works safer and less stressful for both workers and drivers. It dialogue about new measures like flashing cones on the approach to works mobile carriageway closures and improved incident management. It also encourages more effective use of speed limits at road works. Drivers should expect consistent limits to be set depending on the work being carried out, without confusing variations. That should be combined with speed detection equipment and other methods o f persuading people to reduce speed.RECOMMENDATIONSChanging the behaviour of risk-taking drivers tends to require hard interventions, which require the involvement of police or other law enforcement organisations. For complying drivers, soft interventions such as the Respect campaign can be used other interventions that could be applied to the issue of road worker safety and driver behaviour can includeTraining road workersBy training road workers through the use of seminars and workshops can make them aware of their risks and conscientious those involved on how best they can be aware of the job related risks.Improving driver skillsThere is a need for further training of professional drivers and specific training of all drivers to raise their awareness of the issues of driving through road works.Better self knowledgeThe public are an important partner in improving safety through road works. There is a need for greater awareness of personal skill levels and abilities to encourage bet ter self pacing and improved behaviour when driving. This can be achieved through a high profile advertising campaign to raise the public profile of road worker safety. Such an approach aims to demonstrate the risk to drivers and road workers from speeding through road works.Improving the taskIt is important to ensure that the driving task when approaching and driving through road works is made as simple as possible to prevent overloading drivers with information. All those involved in applying the principles contained in the Traffic Signs Manual Chapter 8 need to review their road works layouts in order to make the driving task as easy possible for an uninformed driverCONCLUSIONIt can be concluded that the behaviour of drivers towards road workers indicates that there is little respect for road works and road workers. At best the works and workers are tolerated, at worst the works are ignored and workers are abused either verbally or physically. Changing the attitude of drivers to road works is essential to improve the safety of both road workers and the drivers passing through road work sites. The behaviour of road drivers is directly or indirectly the cause of most road accidents, including those at road works. Influencing drivers behaviour to prevent accidents at road works will improve road worker safety as well as that of the road user.

Importance Of Experts Opinions In Search For Knowledge Philosophy Essay

Importance Of Experts Opinions In Search For Knowledge Philosophy EssaySearching through newspapers, TV news or radio I can easily find the so c bothed opinions ofexperts. Almost every article in The Economist, Guardian consists of at least two quotations of economists, sociologists or lawyers who are in general professors of the world most famous Universities such asOxford, Cambridge, Harvard, Yell or workers of the specialised institutes. All these opinions whitethorn be useful in substantiateing knowledge as yet would itbereasonable to uncriti namey accept them asadefinite knowledge or call it my own knowledge? To answer the question of how significant are the opinions of experts in the search ofknowledge I will carry out an in depth analysis ofthree main aspects. First of all Iwill try to examine who anexpert is and what conditions need to be completed in order tocall approximatelyone an authority inaspecific field. Secondly, I will focus on the process oftransforming anopi nion into myown knowledge. The last aspect will set down where doexperts gain their knowledge and what are the bases of their opinions. I desire that ananalysis of these three dimensions, extended by an examples of my everyday life and based on specific areas ofknowledge, will be,to fully grown extent, sufficient for answering whether experts and their opinions are able to supply mewith an adequate evidence to accept itasareliable component ofmyknowledge.As I was thinking of how to define an expert I ended up realizing how complex the perception of experts is. I would say that there is no one, ideal definition. However as I think about it,this isa person who possess an in depth knowledge in a specific field and relying mostly on the trial-and-error evidence makes researches developing his/hers own understanding ofaspecific phenomenon. My brief definition seems to find anapplication in everyday life for example professors from Universities nail down only in narrow fields and by probing particular factors, they form their own proven conclusions which are further presented inmagazines or books asexperts opinions. AsIam most interested ineconomics it seems most reasonable to evoke anauthority specialising in this area. Let me focus on Leszek Balcerowicz, who is considered anexpert in regulating the interference ofthe government onthe market. First of all hegraduated from the economics faculty, performed inthe most respected depicted object and European posts and was an author of the famous Balcerowicz Plan which transformed Polish economy what provided him with anempirical evidence. Tomymind hepossesses enough knowledge to form reliable conclusions ofwhat heobserves inmarket. moreover we need to be aware that heisdevoted toaspecific economics school monetarism, therefore his opinions may betosome extent subordinate tohis personal beliefs orbiases. However whenever I see his opinion being expressed I know that it will for sure mend my understanding of a g iven case ashis authority based on experience, reasoning and although inevitably emotions and personal attitude are sufficient for me to call him anauthority whose opinion I base on when creating my own conclusions, present of view that Icall my own. Itmay be claimed that I treat Balcerowicz as an expert just because Iamsympathetic to his creed yet even people that have contradictory economical opinions doaccept his high school appointments and take his opinion into consideration at least to confront their and Balcerowiczs ideas. Therefore an authority is not only a person that people agree with and deal out the same opinion but rathersomeone who canprovide us with evidence of his claims.The process of transforming opinion into knowledge is also worth focusing. poring over in the IB programme I realize that experts opinions are only hints that help to interpret facts more widely. The most important social function for me was realising that even ifan expert does his/her outmat ch to be fair minded a bit of subjectivity is inevitable. Yet as I became aware of it the subjectivity turned out to have its electropositive effects. Historical experts seem tothrive on the conflicts between their opinions about events in their search for knowledge and better understanding ofthe past. The same event can suck vastly different opinions, for example the causes of the First World War. Marxist historians blame the development of capitalism whether as German historian, Geiss blames the failure ofdiplomacy.1Hence being a critically thinking person the contradiction of experts opinions makes me understand the problem inawider way, analyse of who Itrust more, whose evidence is strongly support and pound out a compromise.Experts are not born specialists, they gain knowledge and due towork and understanding ofspecific processes they may start being sensed as authorities within the area of their interest. Yet my look concerns mainly history, natural sciences, human scienc es but when itcomes to ethics the knowledge that books or expertises may provide becomes less usable. For example my mother is for me the expert of husband wife relations instead ofthe fact that her knowledge is based only on personal experience. Yet the evidence she can provide me with her successful relationship with my father is at that point sufficient for me.The evidence is in my opinion the most important thing while starting to believe insomething and gaining my own understanding of a given thing (note that in the presented essay I am not discussing theology beliefs). First of all the opinion needs to have rational grounds. This means that if my history teacher said that the First World War started asaconsequence of the assassination of Grand Duke Constantine without giving any proof orexplanation I would in all likelihood doubt whether itis reliable and true. However if he supported it with opinions ofother experts, prime sources (which may be for example some political documents) orother evidence the thesis would became more reliable and therefore probably accepted byme for further consideration of context.The last aspect of my concern is the origin of the need to rely on the opinions of experts. Looking for example at arts, what do I need experts opinions for? As it is the most subjective area of knowledge at first I almost saw no difference whether a flick was commented byan expert oranon expert. The only difference that I considered worth pointing was the fact that experts may be more used to commenting on arts and therefore their language and ability toexpress feelings may be clearer and more focused. However, as I thought about it more I realized that there is at least one more aspect. A good example is De Aardappeleters (The Potato Eaters) by Vincent van Gogh which I found to work different interpretations indifferent context. When I showed the painting to my friends, almost all of them found itordinary and only one person out of ten kn ow the author. However when I showed them the painting once more, but prefacing it with a history of masterpiece and Van Goghs assumptions (therefore I was acting like anexpert) all of them changed their attitude towards the painting and started to see it with a wider perspective appreciating the atmosphere and bright idea.To my mind when it comes to history experts opinions are one of the most important aspects ingaining knowledge for me. Even the primary sources, which seem to be most reliable and unspoiled source of knowledge, have to be interpreted as well. Therefore experts act like an interpreters. Due to their opposed opinions they create anopportunity for me to see different attitudes to the same event. This not only extends myperspective but also reminds me that looking at things from only one point of view is like not looking at them at all.To conclude in my opinion experts opinions are valuable in the search of knowledge. Authorities opinions may be sometimes misleading, lack evidence but as I take them into consideration while creating my own point of view I believe that it provides me with better analysis of the subject. Each opinion is somehow true therefore, whenever an expert or anon expert expresses an opinion I think that it expends my perspective and thusly makes methink more specifically on the problem, analyse it and create my own conclusion.

Angina pectoris

angina pectoris pectoris pectoris1.0 SummaryAngina pectoris is the chest discomfort which come outs when the amount muscle could non received sufficient oxygenated blood. It is receivable to atherosclerosis which is the buildup of the memorial check at the coronary arteries that rationalise the flow of blood to the tit. Also, angina pectoris can leads a patient to stub disease much(prenominal)(prenominal) as coronary artery disease (CAD) or myocardial infection (MI). There argon three kinds of angina which is the static angina, runny angina and variant angina and each of them ar different from their signs and manifestations and interferences. Angina is diagnosed establish on medical and family history, forcible examination and test such(prenominal) as electrocardiogram (ECG) and coronary angiography. However, the patients conditions volition determine which methods need to be used in comp both to cure angina. Lastly, pharmacists play an important role besides docto rs in administering the angina patients. 2.0 Introduction Angina pectoris is the medical term for chest offend or discomfort which is a putting surface signal indicating the sign of warm summationedness diseases, for example, coronary nub disease (CHD). The pain is caused by the insufficient of oxygen rich blood supply to the heart muscle which leads to cardiac ischaemia.1 separate than that, the cause is due to the build up of plaque c each(prenominal) in alled atherosclerosis which is the gradual buildup of fatty deposits and forfends several coronary arteries. As a result, the heart could not receive blood supply as the coronary arteries ferment peg down and stiff and this minimizes the oxygen supply to the heart.1, 2Besides that, angina can be categorized into four different types of categories such as stable angina, unstable angina and variant angina. There are differences in these four types of angina such as signs and symptoms in that respectfore, they required sp ecialized treatments. For example, stable angina is rattling common compare to variant angina. Other than that, doctors pull up stakes do whatever physical exam or examines the patients histories in holy locate to diagnose whether they are in the risk of getting angina and they impart uses several methods such as the praxis electrocardiogram (ECG), radioisotope skip and coronary angiography. After that, doctors allow determine whether which treatment such as surgeryor medication is needed to treat the patients. However, the patients cannot recover if they didnt change their modus vivendis and follow the doctors advices.2.1 Signs and SymptomsPeople who are diagnosed with angina pectoris exit often express the savour of tightness, compel, squeezing and burning in or around the chest. The patients allow for have an attack such as the central chest pain which may dispel to the arms, neck, jaw, throat, back or upper abdomen. Also, they may also encounter shortness of brea th during physical performance and follow by nausea, fatigue, sweating, light-headedness, or weakness. However, not all chest discomfort is angina and some durations it is caused by acid reflux (heart burn) and lung infection or inflammation. Also, the signs and symptoms are vary depends on the type of angina.2.2 When does angina descend?As it was stated, angina occurs when there is an increase in the demand of oxygenated blood to the heart. Most of the time, angina occurs when the patients are doing some vigorous exercises or physical activities such as climbing hill or carrying heavy groceries. At the same time, it pull up stakes occurs when the patients experiencing emotional stress, digesting heavy metal and at extreme temperature. The patients who were diagnosed with variant angina could get angina attack even when they are resting.2.3 Causes of Angina coronary arteries are the arteries which huckster oxygenate blood to the heart muscle in frame to keep the heart pumping. However, when the heart could not receive adequate amount of blood, it can causes angina attack. There are three important coronary arteries, left hand anterior descending artery, left circumflex artery and right coronary artery in heart which can causes angina when one of them are block off.7 This situation reflects the symptom of coronary arteries diseases (CAD) where the arteries are narrow down due to the buildup of plaque on the inner walls of the arteries. Also, the buildup of plaque can cause the blood clot to form and block the arteries.2, 7Figure 2 shows the differences between a normal and healthy artery and a block artery. Blood flows easily along the healthy arteries to the heart and the heart muscles can function normally without any interruption. However, this scene cant be seen in block arteries. Coronary arteries diseases (CAD) occurs when one of the important arteries are narrow by the plaque and angina could be felt as the arteries are having a hard time in sup plying oxygenated blood to the heart. Also, blood perchance clot at the obturate arteries and stop the blood from flowing to the heart, when this happens, patients will face myocardial infection (MI).Besides that, atherosclerosis could be cause by high train of cholesterol in blood, smoking, obesity, diabetes mellitus and alcohol. Smoking progresss atherosclerosis by maximized blood pressure and heart rate which induce the heart to demand for much myocardial oxygen. It overthrows the oxygen-carrying capacity and increases the recurrence of angina.3.0 Classification3.1 Stable Angina Stable angina can be described as the frequency, duration or effect causes remain unchanged in the past 60 days and it is the most common type of angina.3 The attack last for round 10 minutes or less than that and can be relieved by resting or medication. Hence, patients who are diagnosed with stable angina will experience episode of chest discomfort which will spreads to the arms, back, or other areas that is usually predictable. The stimulus which will maximize the myocardial oxygen demand will induces stable angina by increasing the heart rate or blood pressure of the patients.5 During physical activity, sympathetic nervous system will be activated and causes increase of the heart rate, blood pressure and contraction demanding to a greater extent oxygen. When the oxygen demand is more than the heart is able to supply, chest discomfort maybe be felt and this reflects the presents of MI.4 Also, several arteries which are narrowed down due to the buildup of plaque is one of the factors.3.2 Unstable AnginaUnstable angina is more dangerous than stable angina as it is an acute coronary syndrome and should be treated as emergency and be evaluated in the hospital carefully. Also, it does not follow a pattern can happen without any physical exertion.2, 3 Patients will experience an unexpected pain or discomfort which last longer and does not relieve by rest or medication. This sc enario is causes by the narrowing of the coronary arteries by atherosclerosis. However, blood clots are the major factors which contribute to the blockage of the arteries. If the plaque ruptures, blood clot may form and block the arteries as the blood clot can divide into larger clot which can cause heart attack.2 Chest discomfort can attack each time the blood is clot when the clots slightly dissolve which will later reform again. Besides that, patients will be in the risk of myocardial ischemia, severe cardiac arrhythmias or even sudden dead.63.3 Variant AnginaVariant angina also ben as Prinzmetals angina is due to the coronary artery cramp iron which causes the artery walls to tighten and narrow.2, 3, 6 As a result, it reduces the flow of the blood to the heart and thus, causing chest discomfort. Usually, variant angina happens during the night or wee hours when a patient is at rest because of the momentary reduction of the coronary oxygen supply rather than the increase of my ocardial oxygen demand.2 It may occur in a person with or without CAD as the spasms in at artery can be cause by exposure to the frozen weather, emotional stress, medication which causes vasoconstriction, smoking and the use of cocaine.24.0 Diagnose If a person is having the angina symptoms, he or she should consult their doctor in order to shape out more about their complication. Doctors, who are in duty will conducts a physical exam on the patients, ask about the symptoms and get to know the risk factors and the family history of CAD or other heart disease. Other than that, doctors also will conduct some of the following test in order to diagnose angina.4.1 Exercise Electrocardiogram (ECG) ECG is one of the most widely used tests which measure the rate and regularity of the heartbeat.2, 5 It records the rhythm and electrical activity of the heart and thus, indicating the severity of coronary artery diseases. The patients will exercises on a treadmill period doing the ECG test s ince angina occurs during physical activities. ECG will show an abnormal reading if the patients have narrowing coronary arteries. However, some people with angina also have a normal ECG readings and therefore, exercise stress testing is carried out.4.2 Coronary AngiographyIt is a blood vessels or heart chambers examination using roentgenogram and it is tested during catheterization. A catheter (fine, hollow tube) will be placed into an artery in the patients forearm or groin and advance it till it reaches the coronary artery. Next, a dye which can be observe by X-ray will injected into the coronary artery and several pictures will be obtained. These pictures are called angiograms and it is helpful for the doctors to observe which arteries are narrowed or blocked.64.3 Radioisotope scanIt is also known as radionuclide scan which emits gamma rays. A small amount of radioactive isotope will be injected into the vein while the patients exercise. Then, the gamma rays will be detected by the gamma camera which will be placed close to the chest in order to detect which parts of the heart muscles are blocked.95.0 Treatment The primary cause for angina is lack of oxygen supply which cannot meet the demand of the heart. Therefore, the treatment for angina is to make sure that the heart will receives sufficient oxygen by balancing the oxygen demand and supply. There are few ways of treatment which include medication, surgery and ever-changing the patients lifestyle.5.1 Medical treatment5.1.1 Nitrates Nitrates are the most popular used medicines to treat angina as it open up the blood vessels and widens the coronary arteries (vasodilation), which allow more blood to flow to the heart muscles and reduce the work of the heart.5 It plays the same effectuate of the endogenous nitrous oxide which result in the powerful vasodilating effects.1 Nitrates act by dilating the coronary arteries and peripheral circulation, increase the myocardial oxygen supply by maximized the coron ary flow and lower the left ventricular blood pressure. Other than that, it can remediate exercise tolerance in order to prolong the angina occurring by preventing coronary spasm and coronary arterial vasoconstriction caused by exercise.1, 6 Usually, sublingual nitroglycerine (GTN) stamp pads or spray are used to prevent ischemia before any exercise as it can quickly absorbed into the buccal mucous membrane to provide a relief within 3 minutes.5 Besides that, long-term nitrates for regular oral administration such as isosorbide mononitrate are common practice among the patients. Although nitrates are non-toxic and well tolerated, it can cause headache, flushing and postural dizziness.55.1.2 Beta-blockersPatients who are diagnosed with angina but not contraindications will take beta-blockers as the first-line therapy.5 Beta-blockers act by reducing the rate and force of cardiac contraction, arterial blood pressure, and myocardial oxygen demand of the heart during physical activit ies and improve coronary perfusion during diastole. Other than that, there is an increase in survival rate of patients with MI who are taking beta-blockers. However, patients who have the history of bronchial asthma should not be prescribed with beta-blockers as they tend to increase coronary vasospasm due to unopposed alpha-agonist activity.3 There are a few of approved beta-blockers which are water-soluble and are used to treat angina such as perpanolol, metaprolol, atenolol, nadolol and timolol. Since they are water-soluble, it is less likely they will enter the brain and cause central adverse effects. Besides that, beta-blockers also cause side effects such as bradycardia and hypotension, lethargy, fatigue and impotence.115.1.3 Calcium Channel Blockers Calcium path blockers perform the same effects of nitrates as vasodilators and boost myocardial oxygen balance on coronary flow and blood pressure. They relieve angina and extend the exercise time to onset of angina. Calcium tra ck blockers inhibit calcium ions from flowing into the cells through open calcium channel and mediate the contraction of cardiac muscles. There are two types of calcium channel blockers, dihydropyridines such as nifedipine, amlodipine and felodipine and non-dihydropyridines such as diltiazen and verapamil. They act on the peripheral vasodilation, coronary vasodilation and lower the rate and force of cardiac contraction. On the other hand, patients who are suffering from heart failure should avoid varapamil and diltiazen as they cause negative inotrophic action. Other side effects of calcium channel blockers are facial flushing, headache, postural dizziness, mind ankle oedema and constipation.25.1.4 Antiplatelets Platelets are important in blood clotting and play a role in the pathogenesis of atherosclerosis. Also, it can blocks the coronary arteries and causes the heart muscles from getting sufficient oxygenated blood. Therefore, antiplatelet drugs such as aspirin are use in reducin g the risk of death or nonfatal MI for patients with unstable angina. They can minimize the platelet aggregation by irreversible inhibiting the platelet enzyme cyocooxygenase-1 which prevents thrombaxane A2 formation.115.2 Surgery Doctors will advise the patients to undergo coronary angioplasty or coronary get about surgery if they cannot relieved by any medication or it is life threatening. 5.2.1 Coronary Angioplasty This is a treatment which opens blocked arteries and improves blood flow to the heart muscle, reduce chest pain and prevent heart attack. Before the doctors perform coronary angioplasty on the patients, they will do an angiogram and take an X-ray picture of the patients arteries. A catheter with a terminal balloon is introduced into an artery at the patients groin or arm. X-ray screening directs the catheter until it reaches the blocked arteries and few pictures are taken. Then, the balloon will be hyperbolic to push the fatty tissues outward against the artery wall. A stent which is a small stainless mesh tube will be placed at the new opened arteries as it can h doddering up the arteries and decrease the arteries from narrowed down.2, 3 Figure 3 shows the clogged artery before and after the surgery.5.2.3 Coronary Bypass SurgeryIt is the most common type of heart surgery and it has cures at least 240,000 patients in United States each year. It diverts blood around blocked arteries in the heart by attaching a vein from the leg or artery from the chest or another part of the body between the aorta and the blocked area. As a result, it creates a new route for the blood to flow to the heart and the heart muscle will receive the oxygenated blood. Increasingly, the left internal mammary artery is being used as the grafting blood vessel since it results in a better long-term result and less likely to narrow over the time compare to veins.3 Before the surgery, the patients will undergo coronary angiography to locate the narrowed arteries, have an ele ctrocardiogram, blood test, urine test and chest X-ray to provide the latest health information for the doctors in charged. During the process, the heart of a patient will be arrested and the breastbone will be divided while the blood is send through a heart-lung machine. After the surgery, there will be scars left on the patients and they may feel chest discomfort which will tone down over time.10 5.3 Lifestyle Changes A patient will not recovers from angina if he or she did not change his or her lifestyle after taking medication or surgery as it plays a major role in their life. By changing their lifestyles, patients can avoid the symptom of angina and improve their heart health. For example, patients should adapt a healthy diet which is full of vegetables and fruits and quit smoking. Also, patients who are obese should try to lose their weight until it reaches the BMI (Body big bucks Index) scale. Other than that, they should exercise regularly as directed by the doctors. Howeve r, the most important things are to avoid bringing on an episode of angina such as taking a break or rest when the angina comes on with exertion. Also, the patients need to avoid taking a large amount of provender at a time after a heavy meal. Finally, patients need to learn how to distress when they facing difficulties as it will causes the angina to attack.6.0 clinical Scenario 6.1 Clinical Scenario 1 A 52 years old man has been presented to his doctor with a chest pain on exertion, which has occurred over the previous two weeks. He is diagnosed with angina. He received the following prescription Aspirin 75mg One tablet in the daybreak Atenolol 100mg One tablet in the break of the day GTN spray One dose as required for chest pain Aspirin is an antiplatelet drug which is to prevent the aggregation of platelets and thus, reduce the risk of atherosclerosis. 75mg of aspirin is prescribed to the old man is adequate to prevent the thromboxane A2 production and it is the initial dos e given for long term treatment.11 Since aspirin is an acetylsalicylic acid, the old man should take the tablets in the morning after food in order to reduce the stomachache irritation. Patients who are diagnosed with asthma, pregnancy, haemophilia, hypertension and other bleeding disorders should avoid taking aspirins. Atenolol is a 1 blocker which treats angina by inhibiting the sympathetic nervous system. It lowers the heart rate and blood pressure, reduces the intake of oxygen and so, minimizes the frequency of angina. 100mg of atenolol is recommended daily in the morning because the blood pressure is at lowest level and thus, it can maintains the blood pressure.3 Atenolol should be keeps away from the light and heat and stored in a tightly sealed container. Doctors should explain to the patients about the side effects of the drug such as dizziness, fatigue and sexual dysfunction. However, patients cannot stop the medication as sudden disengagement of atenolol may cause exacerb ation of angina.11 GTN (glyceryl trinitrate) spray is an aerosol spray which is used to dilate and widen the walls of coronary arteries and increase the flow of blood to the heart.3 It is a common and most effective drug to ease angina as it provides a rapid relief of angina. Therefore, the patients should always carry the spray with them at all time. It should be used before the patients engaging any physical activities like climbing stairs which might lead to an acute attack of angina. The side effects of GTN spray are throbbing headache, flushing, nausea and dizziness.11 6.2 Clinical Scenario 2 A 79 years old lady with a history of congestive heart failure and angina receives the following prescription Aspirin 75mg One tablet in the morning Imdur 60mg One tablet in the morning GTN tablets 500mcg One tablet as required for chest pain In scenario 2, the functions of aspirin are been described in scenario 1 but the dosage given to this lady is lower than in scenario 1. The prescrip tion was given based on the decrease in bodyweight, total body water and mass. It is important to give a maximum level of absorption, distribution, metabolism and excretion of medication in elderly patients with fewer side effects. Imdur, which contains isosorbite mononitrate is used to prevent the onset of angina. Nitrates are powerful vasodilators which minimizes the workload of the heart which leads to a decease in the myocardial oxygen demand. In this case, Imdur is given rather of beta-blocker because beta-blocker will reduce a patients heart rate and blood pressure which may lead to heart failure and therefore, it is not suitable for this lady with a history of congestive heart failure. Also, a dosage of 60mg Imdur is adequate and should taken at once in the morning because the duration of its action can be up to 12 hours and to reduce the development of tolerance with respect to anti-angina effect.3, 11 Lastly, GTN tablets were prescribed instead of spray in order to provid e relieve for angina. It has the same effects as GTN spray and it is administered under the tongue and being absorbed while the tablet dissolves when the pain develops. A dose is able to provide relief within a minute. The side effects of GTN tablets are the same as the spray.7.0 Role of druggist Doctors play a very important role in curing the patients who are diagnosed with heart attack and other diseases. However, the process is not complete without pharmacists because they are the people, who are well known for their responsibilities in prescribing medicines for the patients. Also, pharmacists also educate the public about angina by deliver the messages to the patients, making sure the patients understand about their condition and helping them to combat angina. So, an effective communication skill is needed in order to council the patients on their medication without any mistakes. There are some people who are not aware that they are suffering from angina due to the lack of kno wledge about angina. As a result, some of them will simply prescribe themselves with painkiller or any medicines which can relief their chest pain without knowing about the dangerous of their condition. Thus, the pharmacists are responsible to deliver the information about angina to create awareness in the public. The information about the signs and symptoms can surely help the public to aware about their health and to go for a medical check up and seek treatment. Every patient are different and therefore, it is important that they are treated differently based on their condition, sex, age and existing condition such as hypertension, congestive heart failure and diabetes. This is because different conditions need different kind of medications in order to avoid any complications. For example, a patient who had heart failure and suffers from angina should not be prescribed with beta-blocker as beta-blocker will worsen the patient condition. Other than that, pharmacists should advise the patients on when and how to take the medication, the dosage of medication and how to keep the medication. This is crucial as a simple mistake can lead the patients to death such as overdose. Also, the pharmacists will advise the patients on what to avoid and how to take care of themselves so that they can faster recover from angina. For example, the pharmacists will advise them that they should avoid any vigorous activities and watch their diets. Lastly, a pharmacist should keep his/her patients conditions private and confidential as this is the trust which his/her patient had given them. Also, it can help the pharmacist to supervise the condition of their patients and to make sure that they will benefit most on the drug prescribed with the least side effects.8.0 Conclusion As been described, angina is not a disease but a symptom indicating heart disease. It required a long term treatment in order to prevent angina from recurrence and should be taken seriously. So, the role of pharmacist is very essential by helping the patients in managing their life and educating them on angina in order to lead them to healthier life.9.0 ReferencesWilliams, H. Stevens, M. (2002) Chronic stable angina. Pharm.J.. 269363-365National lovingness Lung and Blood Institute, unsoundness and Condition Index. Angina. Khan, M.G., Topol, E.J., Saksena, S. Goodwin, J.F. (1996) Heart Disease Diagnosis and Therapy, A Practical Approach. William Wilkins, Baltimore. Pages 133-183.Lily L. S. Pathophysiology of Heart Disease A Collaborative Project of Medical Student Faculty. 3rd Edition (2203) Lippincott. William Wilkins.Timmis A. D. and Nathan A. W. (1997) Essential of Cardiology. 3rd Edition. American Heart Association, Fighting Heart Disease and Stroke. Angina.eHealthMD, Angina Pectoris. http//www.ehealthmd.com Accessed 28 Aug 2007.iVillage Total Health, Angina. http//heart.health.ivillage.com Accessed 29 Aug Patient UK, Radionuclide (Isotope) Scan. http//www.patient.co.uk Tex as Heart Institute, Coronary Artery Bypass. http//texasheart.orgBritish Medical Association and Royal Pharmaceutical Society of large(p) Britain. British National Formulary 43, March 2002. 2.4 Beta-adrenoceptor blocking drugs, 2.6.1 Nitrates, 2.6.2 Calcium-channel blockers and 2.9 Antiplatelet drugs.

A Change of Heart Essay -- Personal Narrative Writing

A Change of HeartStepping through the revolving glass doors of the hospital felt equal entering a completely different world. With my arms crossed over my chest, I followed my parents though the never-ending, eggshell white hallways. My nostrils burned from the fumes of cleaners and sterility. pleasing paintings and luscious plants filled the walkways, trying to mask the hollow, empty feeling that most visitors felt. We passed two types of people along the way to our destination the kind that strolled by slice flashing everyone big, cheery smiles, and the people who kept their gaze straight ahead ignoring your mere existence I preferred the latter. I did not belong in this place. This was a place for the sick, a place where people went to die. My grandfather did not belong here. We continued walking as my thoughts slipped away to a more attractive time in my life.I pictured our family tradition of traveling to my grandparents home every Sunday afternoon. Their quaint little ho me, white washed with baby risque shutters welcomed any stranger and had a faint honeysuckle aroma that soothed the weariest of souls. We ate lunch together with my grandfather and grandmother sitting like kings and queens at opposite ends of the table. Then everyone gathered in the family room and spend the late afternoon playing games and catching up on the big events of the week. My grandfather spent his time playing with each grandchild one at a time so we would feel special. Anyone could tell that he get laidd his job as a grandparent. His eyes twinkled with delight and his smile never faded as he spent time with us. He loved throwing us up in the station with his powerful arms, until we squealed with delight as our stomachs flew above our heads. ... ... take a step forward. The situation glimmered with a stream of hope. Reaching his hand out to me, I lancinate even closer and placed my hand atop his. At that moment, I knew that everything would turn out okay. M y grandfather had changed physically but not mentally. I unavoidable his smile to assure me of that. A calming feeling came over me as I walked through the revolving doors and out of the hospital into the bright sunshine. Removing the 200 pounds of iron that sit down on my heart and leaving behind the massive building which housed the source of my troubles felt welcoming. I walked away from the situation knowing that my grandfathers personality or love for me did not change. However, my attitude shifted from looking at my grandfather as not being acceptable, to understanding that the only thing that had changed was his physical appearance he was electrostatic the same.

Celebrities and their Tibet Essay -- Expository Tibet Essays

Celebrities and their TibetTibet has long been a mystical land, a place that non many have cognize about. However this has changed. The celebrities have come out in force in making Tibet the center of attention. Even now, most people dont know more about Tibet than its location, somewhere in Asia. So, while the popular support of the struggle of the Tibetans has become well known due to the involvement of celebrities spreading the word, has it really helped the cause or simply let people know what is going on there? Even more importantly, is the information that the celebrities are passing on always chasten?Before any of these questions can be answered though, one must first know the origin of the conflicts between the two regions as well as the news report of the Free Tibetan Movement. As said above, Tibet used to be a place that not many people knew about. This made it much easier for the Chinese politics to come in and take control of the people and the land without much pro test from the outside world. In fact even if other countries, like bordering India, had known, not much would have been done. This is because no nation had ever recognized Tibet as an independent country. Rather, it was the events that followed which caused the uproar. According to defected citizens of Tibet that traveled to India and then dispersed throughout the world, the Chinese started a form of spiritual cleansing. Monks and spiritual leaders that would not follow their ground rules were detained, captured or killed. The lamas of the Tibetan people were either taken as political prisoners or exiled. However, there are also those that said that some of this never happened. The first troops had appeared in the city in September, 1951. The ... ...Collins. 1969.Connolly, Paul. Tale of Two Cities. The Times. Newspaper Source. 2/23/2002 Dolker, Sonam. So Far from Home. Time for Kids. import 11(1997) page 4. 3/27/02. Ewing, Alice. How The Tibet Movement Can Backfire on America. -- - Chinese American Forum. Issue 2(2001) page 22. 3/28/02.Free Tibet Campaign. 3/31/02. http//www.freetibet.org/menu.htm.Fricke, David. Lama-palooza. Rolling Stone. Issue 774(1997) page 105. 3/28/02.Kim, Albert. Lookin Tibet. Entertainment Weekly. Issue 416(1998) page 15. 3/28/02 McQueen, Dane. Discos or the Dalai Lama what does Tibet want? YPA. 3/31/02. --- http//www.ypa.org/issues/previous/tibet.html.Snellgrove, David, and Hugh Richardson. A Cultural History of Tibet. New York --- Praeger. 1968.Trebay, Guy. And Then Tibet. Village Voice. Issue 3(1998) page 26. 3/27/02.